Latin American Philosophy . Rather than attempt to provide an exhaustive and impossibly long list of scholars. However, the definitions of both . The French- speaking parts of the Caribbean are sometimes included as well, but all mainland North American regions north of the Rio Grande are excluded in spite of French being widely spoken in Canada. Although it is anachronistic to speak of Latin American philosophy before the 1. Given this widespread agreement that there was . A number of indigenous cultures (particularly the Aztecs, Mayas, Incas, and Tupi- Guarani) produced sophisticated systems of thought long before Europeans arrived with their own understanding of . It is worthwhile to remember that these and other labels are the products of human activity and dispute, not the result of a pre- ordained teleological process. The term competed against terms like . More than a debate over mere terms, Latin American philosophy demonstrates a longstanding preoccupation with the identity of Latin America itself and a lively debate over the authenticity of its philosophy. Given the history of colonialism in the region, much of the history of Latin American philosophy analyzes ethical and sociopolitical issues, frequently treating concrete problems of practical concern like education or political revolution. Table of Contents. Indigenous Period. Colonial Period. Scholasticism and Debates on Conquest. Post- conquest Indigenous Thought. Proto- nationalism. Proto- feminism. Enlightenment Philosophy. Nineteenth Century. The HyperTexts Famous, Notorious and Luminous Beauties These pages are dedicated to famous, notorious and luminous beauties of the past and present. Each year since 1957 Australia has issued Christmas stamps to facilitate the mailing of greeting cards to inland addresses, sometimes at a reduced postage rate. Jay has more than 50 years experience as a rare stamp and coin dealer, uniting treasures with serious collectors and savvy investors since 1958; Polished expert. First Council of the Lateran; Date: 1123: Accepted by: Catholicism. Political Independence. Mental and Cultural Emancipation. Positivism. Twentieth Century. Generation of 1. 90. Foundational Critique of Positivism. Generation of 1. 91. New Philosophical Directions. Generation of 1. 93. Forging Latin American Philosophy. Generation of 1. 94. Normalization of Latin American Philosophy. Generation of 1. 96. Philosophies of Liberation. Generation of 1. 98. Globalization, Postmodernism, and Postcolonialism. Twenty- First Century. Plurality of Philosophies in Latin America. Poison Cornflakes for Breakfast. Friedman (Ret.) Modified versions of this article were first published in the Society of Philatelic Americans Journal. Normalization of Latin American Philosophy in the United States. References and Further Reading.
Indigenous Period. Most histories of Western philosophy claim that philosophy began in ancient Greece with Thales of Miletus (c. There is ample evidence that a number of indigenous peoples in present- day Latin America also engaged in this sort of sophisticated speculation well before the 1. Europeans arrived to ask the question of whether it was philosophy. Moreover, a few Europeans during the early colonial period, including the Franciscan priest Bernardino de Sahag. In any case, whether or not most sixteenth- century European explorers, conquistadores, and missionaries believed that there were indigenous philosophies and philosophers, indigenous cultures produced sophisticated systems of thought centuries before Europeans arrived. The largest and most notable of these indigenous civilizations are: the Aztec (in present- day central Mexico), the Maya (in present- day southern Mexico and northern Central America), and the Inca (in present- day western South America centered in Peru). Considerable challenges face scholars attempting to understand their complex systems of thought, since almost all of their texts and the other artifacts that would have testified most clearly concerning their intellectual production were systematically burned or otherwise destroyed by European missionaries who considered them idolatrous. Nevertheless, scholars have used the handful of pre- colonial codices and other available sources to reconstruct plausible interpretations of these philosophies, while remaining cognizant of the dangers inherent in using Western philosophical concepts to understand non- Western thought. See the article on Aztec Philosophy for an excellent example. Colonial Period. Academic philosophy during the colonial period was dominated by scholasticism imported from the Iberian Peninsula. With the support of Charles V. Mexico was the main philosophical center in the early colonial period, with Peru gaining importance in the seventeenth century. The adherents of various religious orders who taught at these centers of higher learning emphasized the texts of medieval scholastics like Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, as well as their Iberian commentators, particularly those associated with the School of Salamanca, for example, Francisco de Vitoria (c. Domingo de Soto (1. Francisco Su. The thoroughly medieval style and sources of their theological and philosophical disputations concerning the Indies and its peoples contrast starkly with the extraordinarily new epistemological, ethical, religious, legal, and political questions that arose over time alongside attempts to colonize and missionize the New World. Much of the philosophy developed in the Indies appeared in isolation from its social and political context. For example, there was nothing uniquely Mexican about Antonio Rubio. This careful analysis of Aristotelian logic in light of recent scholastic developments brought fame to the University of Mexico when it was adopted as logic textbook back in Europe where it went through seven editions. Scholasticism and Debates on Conquest. One of the most famous philosophical debates of the early colonial period concerned the supposed rights of the Spanish monarchy over the indigenous peoples of the Indies. Las Casas countered Sep. Las Casas argued that the war against the Indians was unjust, that neither Spain nor the Church had jurisdiction over Indians who had not accepted Christ, and that Aristotle. No formal winner of the debate was declared, but it did lead to las Casas. Post- conquest Indigenous Thought. Indigenous perspectives on some of these philosophical issues emerge in post- conquest texts that also depict pre- colonial life and history in light of more recent colonial violence. The work of Felipe Guam. Written around 1. King Philip III of Spain, Guam. This and other post- conquest native texts affirm the ongoing existence of native intellectual traditions, contest the colonial European understanding of indigenous peoples as barbarians, and challenge Eurocentric views of American geography and history. Proto- nationalism. As part of European conquest and colonization a new social hierarchy or caste system based on race was developed. White Spanish colonists born on the Iberian Peninsula (peninsulares) held the highest position, followed by white Spaniards born in the Indies (criollos), both of whom were far above Indians (indios) and Africans (negros) in the hierarchy. First generation individuals born to parents of different races were called mestizos (Indian and white), mulatos (African and white), and sambos (Indian and African). The subsequent mixing of already mixed generations further complicated the hierarchy and led to a remarkably complex racial terminology. In any case, higher education was almost always restricted to whites, who typically had to demonstrate the purity of their racial origins in order to enroll. By the seventeenth century, well- educated criollos were developing new perspectives on the Indies and their colonial experience. Anxious to maintain their status through intellectual ties to the Iberian Peninsula while nevertheless establishing their own place and tradition in America, these thinkers reflected on diverse topics while developing a proto- nationalist discourse that would eventually lead to independence. The work of Carlos de Sig. On the other hand, this did not prevent Sig. Proto- feminism. Similar to the way in which scholars have retrospectively perceived a budding nationalism in intellectuals like Sig. Just as non- whites were typically barred from higher education based on European assumptions of racial inferiority, women were not permitted access to formal education on the assumption of sexual inferiority. Basic education was provided in female convents, but their reading and writing still occurred under the supervision of male church officials and confessors. After establishing a positive reputation for knowledge across literature, history, music, languages, and natural science, Sor Juana was publicly reprimanded for entering the male- dominated world of theological debate. Under the penname of Sor Philothea de la Cruz (Sister Godlover of the Cross), the Bishop of Puebla told Sor Juana to abandon intellectual pursuits that were improper for a woman. Enlightenment Philosophy. Although leading Latin American intellectuals in the eighteenth century did not completely abandon scholasticism, they began to draw upon new sources in order to think through new social and political questions. Interest grew in early modern European philosophy and the Enlightenment, especially as this . The experimental and scientific methods gained ground over the syllogism, just as appeals to scriptural or Church authority were slowly replaced by appeals to experience and reason. The rational liberation from intellectual authority that characterized the Enlightenment also fueled desires for individual liberty and national autonomy, which became defining issues in the century that followed. Political Independence. In the early nineteenth century, national independence movements swept through Latin America. However, some scholars have categorized these wars for independence as civil wars, since the majority of combatants on both sides were Latin Americans. Criollos, although a numerical minority (roughly 1. Latin American population in the early nineteenth century),led the push for political independence and clearly gained the most from it. In contrast, most of the combatants were mestizos (roughly 2. Scholars disagree about whether to understand changes in Latin American thought as causes or as effects of these political independence movements. In any case, Simon Bol. Frequently citing the French Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu (1. Bol. Rather they must be carefully adapted to particular historical, geographical, and cultural realities. The Worlds Best Films. All Ranked Black and White Films, and more (2. Edition). I dipped down to the top 1. Seven Samurai, The (1. Kurosawa, Akira #2. Metropolis (1. 92. Lang, Fritz #7. 3. Modern Times (1. 93. Chaplin, Charles #9. Night of The Hunter, The (1. Laughton, Charles #1. Citizen Kane (1. 94. Welles, Orson #1. Psycho (1. 96. 0) Hitchcock, Alfred #1. It's a Wonderful Life (1. Capra, Frank #1. 7. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1. Kubrick, Stanley #1. Sunset Boulevard (1. Wilder, Billy #1. Bicycle Thief, The (1. De Sica, Vittorio #2. Third Man, The (1. Reed, Carol #2. 3. Raging Bull (1. 98. 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